2.1: Parliamentary, Presidential, and Semi-presidential Systems
YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO Describe parliamentary, presidential, and semi-presidential systems
Parliamentary systems, such as the United Kingdom, combine the lawmaking and executive functions, which allows the national legislature to select and remove the head of government and cabinet.
Presidential systems, such as Mexico and Nigeria, feature a cabinet that is mostly responsible to the elected executive, with a legislature that can only remove cabinet members through impeachment. These systems have separate fixed-term, popular elections for the national legislature, and a top executive leader serving as both head of state and head of government.
Semi-presidential systems, such as Russia, feature separate popular elections for the president and for the national legislature, allowing the president to nominate a prime minister (who must be approved by the legislature); members of the cabinet are held accountable by both the president and legislature.
Parliamentary systems, such as the United Kingdom, combine the lawmaking and executive functions, which allows the national legislature to select and remove the head of government and cabinet.
Presidential systems, such as Mexico and Nigeria, feature a cabinet that is mostly responsible to the elected executive, with a legislature that can only remove cabinet members through impeachment. These systems have separate fixed-term, popular elections for the national legislature, and a top executive leader serving as both head of state and head of government.
Semi-presidential systems, such as Russia, feature separate popular elections for the president and for the national legislature, allowing the president to nominate a prime minister (who must be approved by the legislature); members of the cabinet are held accountable by both the president and legislature.
2.2: Comparing Parliamentary, Presidential, and Semi-Presidential Systems
YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
Compare institutional relations among parliamentary, presidential, and semi-presidential systems
Although parliamentary systems have fewer institutional obstacles to enact policy than presidential systems (presidential systems have divided branch powers), parliamentary systems have their own checks on the executive branch.
Parliaments may censure cabinet ministers, refuse to pass executive proposed legislation, question the executive and cabinet ministers, and impose time deadlines on calling new elections.
Compare institutional relations among parliamentary, presidential, and semi-presidential systems
Although parliamentary systems have fewer institutional obstacles to enact policy than presidential systems (presidential systems have divided branch powers), parliamentary systems have their own checks on the executive branch.
Parliaments may censure cabinet ministers, refuse to pass executive proposed legislation, question the executive and cabinet ministers, and impose time deadlines on calling new elections.
2.3: Executive Systems
YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
Explain the structure, function, and change of executive leadership in course countries.
Governments have executive institutions, including chief executives and cabinets, that formulate, implement, and enforce policy through different methods and agencies.
Titles, powers, structure, and functions vary in executive leadership across the six countries:
Explain the structure, function, and change of executive leadership in course countries.
Governments have executive institutions, including chief executives and cabinets, that formulate, implement, and enforce policy through different methods and agencies.
Titles, powers, structure, and functions vary in executive leadership across the six countries:
- China’s president serves as commander in chief, chair of China’s Military Commission, and General Secretary of the Chinese Communist party (NPC); the president nominates the premier of the NPC, who in turn serves as head of government overseeing the civil service; changes in top leadership are accomplished behind closed doors.
- Iran’s Supreme Leader sets the political agenda, serves as commander in chief, and appoints top ministers, the Expediency Council, half of the Guardian Council, and the head of the judiciary. The president is elected for up to two 4-year terms, oversees the civil service, and conducts foreign policy.
- Mexico’s elected president, as both head of state and head of government, serves as commander in chief and leader of the bureaucracy, and can approve domestic legislation and lead foreign policy; the president is restricted to one term.
- Nigeria’s elected president, as both head of state and head of government, serves as chief executive, commander in chief, and head of civil service, and can approve domestic legislation and conduct foreign policy.
- Russia’s prime minister, the head of government, oversees the civil service. The elected president, head of state and commander in chief, appoints top ministers, conducts foreign policy, and presides over the Duma under certain conditions.
- The United Kingdom’s monarch serves ceremonially as head of state and formally appoints as prime minister the leader of the party or coalition holding the largest number of seats in the House of Commons. The prime minister can call elections, sets the foreign policy agenda, and serves as de facto commander in chief and chief executive over the civil service..
2.4: Executive Term Limits
YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
Explain the structure, function, and change of executive leadership in course countries.
Executive term limits have advantages and disadvantages with regard to promoting stability and effective policies in a country.
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Advantages of executive term limits are that they check executive power by and inhibit the emergence of dictators and personality rule; help to focus the officeholder on governing rather than winning elections; and provide opportunities for new leaders with new ideas, policies, or goals.
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Disadvantages of executive term limits are that they force good executives to leave office; allow insufficient time for an officeholder to achieve goals; impede policy continuity; weaken accountability; create a lame-duck period for the officeholder; prevent the officeholder from building experience as chief executive; and can cause poorly designed policy.
Explain the structure, function, and change of executive leadership in course countries.
Executive term limits have advantages and disadvantages with regard to promoting stability and effective policies in a country.
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Advantages of executive term limits are that they check executive power by and inhibit the emergence of dictators and personality rule; help to focus the officeholder on governing rather than winning elections; and provide opportunities for new leaders with new ideas, policies, or goals.
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Disadvantages of executive term limits are that they force good executives to leave office; allow insufficient time for an officeholder to achieve goals; impede policy continuity; weaken accountability; create a lame-duck period for the officeholder; prevent the officeholder from building experience as chief executive; and can cause poorly designed policy.
2.5: Removal of Executives
YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
Describe procedures for the removal of executive leadership by other institutions.
Across the course countries, executive leaders can be removed by the legislative branch through different procedures that control the abuse of power.
Describe procedures for the removal of executive leadership by other institutions.
Across the course countries, executive leaders can be removed by the legislative branch through different procedures that control the abuse of power.
- UK: Vote of Confidence (most recent?)
- Russia: Confirm/reject the appointment of the PM, but president can rule by decree through the cabinet which the Duma may not remove...impeach the president with a 2/3 vote in both the Duma and the Federation Council in addition to a guilty conviction of treason in Russia's Supreme Court (Yeltsin 1995-99?)
- China: limited to two terms until 2018 but the old 5-yr term used to be renewed by the NPC (Xi Jinping?)
- Mexico: 1 six-year term (1988 Congressional elections / Fox & Calderon thru 2009 / Nieto 2012)
- Iran: the Supreme Leader can be removed from office by the Assembly of Religious Experts (this has never been tested) the President may be dismissed from office at any moment by the Supreme Leader (2009 presidential election...what happened?)
- Nigeria: Senate can impeach judges and executive commissions (but the president must first recommend their impeachment) the Supreme Court is empowered with judicial review to declare actions of the president or the National Assembly unconstitutional, but the power is not commonly exercised (1998's Sani Abacha)
2.6: Legislative Systems
YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
Describe legislative structures and functions in course countries.
Legislative institutions of course countries include the following structures and functions:
Describe legislative structures and functions in course countries.
Legislative institutions of course countries include the following structures and functions:
- China’s party-controlled system is unicameral and consists of an elected National People’s Congress that the constitution recognizes as the government’s most powerful institution that elects the president, approves the premier, and legitimizes policies of the executive.
- Iran’s theocracy is unicameral; the Majles is elected and holds the power to approve legislation, oversee the budget, and confirm presidential nominees to the Cabinet. This body acts under the supervision of the Guardian Council to ensure compatibility with Islam and Sharia law.
- Mexico’s congressional-presidential system is bicameral. It consists of an elected lower house—the Chamber of Deputies—that approves legislation, levies taxes, and verifies outcomes of elections. The elected upper house, the Senate, holds the unique power to confirm presidential appointments to the Supreme Court, approve treaties, and approve federal intervention in state matters.
- Nigeria’s congressional-presidential system is bicameral, consisting of an elected upper and lower chamber (Senate and House of Representatives). Both chambers hold the power to approve legislation, and the Senate possesses unique impeachment and confirmation powers.
- Russia’s parliamentary-hybrid system is bicameral, and consists of an elected state Duma, which passes legislation and confirms the prime minister. An appointed Federation Council approves budget legislation, treaties, judicial nominees, and troop deployment.
- The United Kingdom’s parliamentary system is bicameral, consisting of an elected House of Commons—which approves legislation— and the prime minister appointed by the monarch, whereas an appointed House of Lords reviews and amends bills from the Commons, effectively delaying implementation as a power check.
2.7: Independent Legislatures
YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
Explain how legislative powers are constrained by other institutions and/or processes, which can affect legislative independence.
Legislative powers can be constrained by other governmental institutions, including:
Legislatures have the potential to reinforce legitimacy and stability by responding to public demand, openly debating policy, facilitating compromise between factions, extending civil liberties, and restricting the power of the executive.
Explain how legislative powers are constrained by other institutions and/or processes, which can affect legislative independence.
Legislative powers can be constrained by other governmental institutions, including:
- China’s Politburo Standing Committee, which is the actual center of power in the Chinese state
- China’s Standing Committee of the National People’s Congress (NPC), which assumes legislative duties most of the year when the NPC is not in session, sets NPC legislative agenda, supervises NPC member elections, and interprets the Constitution and laws
- Iran’s Expediency Council, which is selected by the Supreme Leader as an advisory committee to resolve disputes between the Majles and the Guardian Council
- Iran’s Guardian Council, which vets candidates and oversees the Majles to make sure laws comply with Islamic law
Legislatures have the potential to reinforce legitimacy and stability by responding to public demand, openly debating policy, facilitating compromise between factions, extending civil liberties, and restricting the power of the executive.
2.8: Judicial Systems
YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
Describe the structure and functions of judiciaries.
Describe the structure and functions of judiciaries.
Judiciaries in course countries have different functions and use various methods to appoint judges to interpret and apply laws and resolve disputes, represented by:
- In China, rule by law (instead of rule of law) means the judicial system is subservient to the decisions of the Chinese Communist Party (CPC), which controls most judicial appointments.
- The Iranian judiciary’s major function is to ensure that the legal system is based on religious law, so judges must be trained in Islamic Sharia law. The head of the judiciary is appointed by the Supreme Leader and can nominate half of the Guardian Council with approval by the Majles.
- The Mexican judiciary is in transition—the Supreme Court has the power of judicial review and subsequent constitutional amendments have been implemented with the intent to make the system more independent and effective.
- In Mexico, Supreme Court magistrates are nominated by the president and approved by the Senate for a term of 15 years.
- The Nigerian judiciary has the power of judicial review, and an effort has been made to reestablish its legitimacy and independence by reducing corruption; under the system of federalism, Islamic Sharia Courts have been established in the north.
- In Nigeria, Supreme Court judges are recommended by a judicial council and are appointed by the president with confirmation by the Senate.
- Russia’s government uses the judicial system to target opposition, and although constitutionally the courts have the power of judicial review, this power has not been used to limit the authority of the governing branches.
- In Russia, judges are nominated by the president and approved by the Federation Council.
- The United Kingdom’s judicial system uses common law to enforce the rule of law; major functions of the Supreme Court include its serving as the final court of appeals, protecting human/civil rights and liberties, and ruling on devolution disputes.
2.9: Independent Judiciaries
YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:
Explain the importance of independent judiciaries relative to other political institutions.
Explain the importance of independent judiciaries relative to other political institutions.
- The degree of the judiciary’s independence from other branches of government depends on the amount of authority the courts have to overrule executive and legislative actions, the process by which judicial officials acquire their jobs, the length of judicial terms, the professional and academic backgrounds that judicial officials are expected to have, and the processes used to remove judges from their posts.
- Independent judiciaries can strengthen democracy by maintaining checks and balances, protecting rights and liberties, establishing the rule of law, and maintaining separation of powers